Racial and Ethnic Minorities Newsletter Message From The Outgoing Chair It has been a pleasure to serve as your Division Chair. I have learned more about you and the society and now hand the reigns over to David G. Embrick, the new Division Chair. I have known David for several years and assure you he will do a wonderful job, keeping you informed on all the division issues and news. This year’s theme “The Art of Activism” has generated a number of papers which I am sure will make for exciting sessions in Denver. Our three Division sessions and Co-sponsored sessions deal with timely social issues given our current social and political atmosphere. Each sessions will spawn many questions to write about and discuss not only with colleagues, but also with students. A special thanks to Drs. William Oliver, (Indiana University) for his session entitled “African American Activism on Violence as a Public Health Issue in the African American Community” , which will complement our co-sponsored sessions with Drinking and Drugs. But also to Dr. Mignon Moore (UCLA) for accepting our invitation to co-sponsor “ Black Activism and Same Sex Marriage session”.It ‘s never easy to say goodbye, but I do say good-bye and look forward to working with you for years to come. See you in Denver and in NYC in 2013. Marlese Message From David G. Embrick, New Division Chair With the month of July fast fading away, the 2012 SSSP meetings in Denver, Colorado are just around the corner. Like myself, I am sure that many of you both welcome the annual meetings—the camaraderie of friends and associates, hearing and presenting new research, and meeting new folks—but also dread the end of summer and the seemingly insurmountable “to do” pile. But somewhere in between the dreaded rush to prepare my presentations and my “yet another” request to extend my deadline I feel energized…energized and ready to engage in dialogue about how to collectively proceed and move forward as a division. I am most excited and equally thankful to serve as the new chair for the race/ethnicity division of SSSP. I hope, too, that you are equally excited and that together we might think about positive changes that will benefit all of us. energized…energized and ready to engage in dialogue about how to collectively proceed and move forward as a division. I am most excited and equally thankful to serve as the new chair for the Race & Ethnic Minorities Division of SSSP. I hope, too, that you are equally excited and that together we might think about positive changes that will benefit all of us. I would like to cast a deep and most sincere thank you to my good friend, and outgoing chair, Marlese Durr. She has been a mentor and friend since my days in graduate school and I find that no matter how much time flies, she is always still willing to be there whenever I just can’t figure things out. Finally, I would like to introduce two great scholars who have stepped up to the plate in my call for assistance with our division newsletter: Bhoomi K. Thakore and Kasey Henricks. They will be officially taking over as co-newsletter editors after our Denver meetings. Both Bhoomi and Kasey have expressed enthusiasm about helping to create a newsletter that will highlight the accomplishments of our members and bring about some solidarity in the research on race and ethnicity that we all do. I would like to thank them both in advance for taking on this service. I look forward to seeing everyone in Denver! David Crystal Bedley is 2012 Student Award Winner This year as with every year, many of the students papers sent to me for consideration were social and politically relevant pieces . More important they addressed the current state of affairs in the U.S. However, there can only be one winner and this year the winner is Crystal Bedley, of Rutgers University for her paper “Monoracial and Multiracial Attitudes Towards Racial Inequality” . Honorable mentions goes to David S. Pedulla of Princeton University and Chandra D. L Waring of University of Connecticut. David’s paper , “The Positive Consequences of Negative Stereotypes: Race, Sexual Orientation, and The Job Application Process”, reveals that straight white gay men and gay black men received higher salary recommendations that both straight black men and gay white men. Chandra ‘s paper “They see as Exotic….That Intrigues them: Gender, Sexuality, and Racially Ambiguous Body”, discusses how racial assumptions shape expectation, comments, opportunities and life chances. She highlights how the intersection of gender, sexuality and race interlock. I was delighted to read such wonderful new research and hope that these papers will be placed on our division website for all to read. Nominations for 2013 General Election Nominations are still open for the 2012 General Election. We are still in need of candidates for President-Elect, Vice President-Elect, Regular and Student Members of the Board of Directors, Members of the Budget and Finance Committee, and Membership and Outreach Committee. Please consider Nominating a colleague or yourself for one of the these offices by completing the on-line nomination page at the SSSp Website . Nominations should include a brief description of the nominee’s SSSP involvement and other relevant experiences. The Nominations committee will meet in Denver, Colorado. All nominations should have been received prior to July 15, 2012. The Board of Directors will approve the slate of Candidates for the SSSP 2013 General Election on August 18, 2012. If you have questions, please contact Stephani Williams, (Stephani. Williams @gmail.com), Chairperson, Council of the Special Problems Division. Newsletter Co-Editors Bhoomi K. Thakore is a PhD candidate in Sociology at Loyola University Chicago and a member of SSSP since 2011.dissertation titled, Honorary Whites or Just Like Everyone Else?: South Asians in Popular Media, examines the racialized and gendered representations of South Asians in American media and the presentation of a racial hierarchy in which South Asians remain secondary characters to white lead actors. I look forward to working on the SSSP Racial/Ethnic Minorities Division newsletter and hope to make it a resource for members at all professional levels. I also hope to make it an outlet for graduate students and early career scholars to present their own research to the division. Kasey Henricks is a PhD Student at Loyola University Chicago, and currently serves as Student Representative for the American Sociological Association’s Section on Racial and Ethnic Minorities. His research has won multiple paper competitions at the national and regional levels, and has been accepted to be published in various journals such as Understanding and Dismantling Privilege, Sýnkrisis, Social Thought and Research, and Sociological Insight. His interests lie in critical race studies, stratification, and human rights. Contact can be directed to him at khenricks@luc.edu. About Denver by Lisa Martinez Denver last hosted the SSSP meetings in 1971 and much has changed since that time. Once considered a dusty, frontier town serving as the western hub of mining activity in the mid 1800s, the metropolitan area has transformed as a result of several social, economic, and political changes. The Denver metro area is now home to over 3 million people and boasts several historic and racially/ethnically diverse neighborhoods, each adding to the city’s character. In terms of historical significance, Denver played a prominent role in the Chicano Movement in the 1960s, having served as the site for the Crusade for Justice. The city’s social justice and activist bent is also evidenced by the multitude of nonprofit and social justice organizations addressing issues ranging from immigrant rights, homelessness and poverty, school reform, mentoring and art programs in lower income neighborhoods, reproductive justice, GLBT issues, and other progressive causes. For those more interested in learning about Denver’s culture and history, the following museums are within walking distance from the Grand Hyatt Denver or accessible via taxi or Light Rail. Check out the Denver Art Museum, a 20-25 minute walk from the Grand Hyatt Denver or the nearby History Colorado Center. Also nearby on the south side of the state capitol building is the Molly Brown House Museum and the Denver Mint (tours are free but require reservations but require reservations). Another option is the Black American West Museum located in the Five Points neighborhood. The Arts District on Santa Fe, home to several art galleries including Museo de las Americas and the Chicano Humanities and Arts Council, among many others, is close to downtown as well. HJSR Humboldt Journal of Social Relations Since 1973 an interdisciplinary approach to the social sciences _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Arcata, CA 95521 (707)826-4354 hjsr@humboldt.edu Special Issue Current Perspectives on Marijuana and Society This special issue of the Humboldt Journal of Social Relations (HJSR) features current research into marijuana production, control, and use. The issue welcomes university affiliated submissions as well as submissions from those associated with marijuana policy. The Co-Directors of the newly formed Humboldt Institute for Interdisciplinary Marijuana Research will be offering an overall reflection on the issue. Submissions are due on September 15, 2012 and invited in the following areas: 1. Marijuana Policy Options – Critical Examination of Legalization, decriminalization, harm reduction, depenalization, taxation/regulation, and land use 2. Marijuana Production and Use – Environmental/ecological and economic impacts, as well as mental health issues and social norms and attitudes 2. Marijuana Control – Local, State, and Federal interdiction/regulation initiatives 3. Open Submissions – Current Perspectives on Marijuana and Society Authorship: All authors are encouraged to collaborate with others inside or outside academia. Interdisciplinary submissions are welcome. Manuscript Submission: 1. Manuscripts should be in 12 point font, doubled spaced and generally not exceed 8500 words. To facilitate blind re view, authors should incorporate a cover page that includes an article title, author contact information, a 75 word or less biographical statement and a 150 word or less abstract. Format citations, tables, figures & references using American Psychological Association style. 2. Email hjsr@humboldt.edu with the message subject “HJSR: Marijuana Submission” and attach your submission in .doc, docx or .rtf format. 3. Via overland mail send a check for $15 made out to “HJSR” including a note with your contact information and the date on which you sent your electronic submission. 4. Submission implies commitment to publish in HJSR. Authors should not simultaneously submit to another journal. Manuscripts should not have been published elsewhere. Co-Editors Managing Co-Editors Ronnie Swartz, Ph.D., LCSW, Department of Social Work Maia Ryan, Department of Social Work Beth Wilson, Ph.D., Department of Economics Lora Bristow, Department of Sociology Criminology and Justice Studies Humboldt State University Arcata, CA Starting August 2013 The Department of Sociology invites applications for an academic-year, tenure-line position for a new BA in Criminology and Justice Studies (CJS). The hire will also support our existing BA & MA programs in Sociology. The CJS program is designed to provide undergraduates with the skills necessary to become effective agents of social change; the successful candidate should demonstrate research and/or teaching and service that align with this goal. The successful candidate must be prepared to teach core courses on Introduction to Criminology and Justice Studies, Inequalities & Crime, Law & Society and Criminological Theory, and must also demonstrate ability to engage students with community-based action and research through senior internship and thesis courses. welcome expertise in other areas including, but not limited to, cross-national perspectives on punishment/justice & rural criminology. Candidates must demonstrate a record of collegial collaboration and ability to work with a diverse student population. Ph.D. in Sociology, Criminology, Justice Studies or a closely related field from an accredited college or university is preferred at the time of the appointment; ABD in these fields will be considered (completion of PhD required prior to the start of the second probationary year). Applicants must demonstrate job-related experience with and/or commitment to diversity in the academic environment. Humboldt State University employs only individuals authorized to work in the United States. Closing date September 17, 2012. Full vacancy announcement and application instructions at: www.humboldt.edu/aps/employment/tenure.html Job7536. HSU is an EO/Title IX/ADA. RAY PAHL FELLOWSHIP IN URBAN STUDIES 2013 CALL FOR APPLICATIONS The Foundation for Urban and Regional Studies (FURS), a charity associated with the International Journal of Urban and Regional Studies, wishes to appoint a post-doctoral Research Fellow, for the calendar year 2013. The Fellowship will be based in the African Centre for Cities (ACC) at the University of Cape Town and is for a period of twelve months. The Fellowship is open to any young scholar of postdoctoral standing who is a citizen of an African country (excluding the Republic of South Africa) and who would find the ACC a congenial work environment for intellectual reflection, scholarly engagement and debate, and writing. Preference may be given to scholars whose work relates to cities of the global south, and to Africa in particular. The stipend for 2013 is ZAR 292,215, inclusive of a settling-in allowance. This sum excludes one economy-class return airfare between Cape Town and the Fellow's home, which will be reimbursed by FURS. The purpose of the Fellowship is to extend the applicant's doctoral research, to publish from it, and to begin new research in urban and regional studies. With permission from the FURS Board, the Fellow may undertake a limited amount of teaching at the host institution. The successful candidate must have an excellent educational record, showing outstanding performance as a student in undergraduate and postgraduate taught degree courses, and holding a doctorate in disciplines such as urban sociology, urban and regional geography, urban anthropology, urban economics or urban and regional planning. Applicants must have been awarded their PhD at the time of application but not be more than five years from this date (excluding periods of leave such as for maternity or national service). Applicants must demonstrate research expertise in the chosen field as evidenced by published or forthcoming books or articles in refereed journals. For further particulars on the ACC website, or go to the IJURR website. Hardcopy applications are due in Cape Town by 31 July 2012. FURS and the University of Cape Town are committed to equal opportunities policies Society for the Study of Social Problems Annual Meeting The Art of Activism August 16-18, 2012 The Grand Hyatt Denver Hotel- Denver Colorado Race and Ethnic Minorities Division Program Division Sessions Session Title: African American Activism on Violence As a Public Health Issue in the African American Community Racial and Ethnic Minorities Division Organizers: William Oliver, Indiana University Session Title: Black Activism and Same Sex Marriage (Invited Session) Co-sponsors: Racial and Ethnic Minorities Division with Race, Class, and Gender Section of ASA Organizers: Marlese Durr and Mignon R. Moore Session Title: Movie Portrayals and Women of Color Activism Race and Ethnic Minorities Organizer & Presider: Evrick Brown, Brooklyn College Co-Sponsored Sessions Session Title: “Social Disparities and Drugs Co-sponsors: Racial and Ethnic Minorities and Drinking and Drugs Divisions Organizer: Ellen Benoit, National Development and Research Institute, Inc. Session Title: "Segregated Communities: Questions, Trends, and Policies" Co-sponsors: Community Research & Development; Racial and Ethnic Minorities and Educational Problems Organizer &Presider: Gesemia Nelson, Metropolitan State College of Denver Session Title: "Gentrification and Urban Redevelopment: Conflict, Opportunity, and Inequality" Co-sponsors: Community Research & Development; Environment & Technology; Racial and Ethnic Minorities; Educational Problems Organizer & Presider: Jennifer Darrah, Harvard University `` Session Title: Global Families: The Art of Research and Activism (Thematic) Organizers: Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Sociology and Social Welfare, and Family Divisions Organizers Email: Nancy Mezey, Monmouth College Session Title: Assessing Stereotypes of Immigrants as Offenders Organizers: Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Crime and Juvenile Delinquency, and Global Divisions Organizer: Peter Ibarra, University of Illinois, Chicago Discussant: Amir Marvasti Session Title: Immigrant Workers and the State Organizers: Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Labor Studies, and Global Divisions Organizer Dan Trope, Florida State University “Who Plays? Who Pays?: How the Illinois Lottery Taxes Racial Inequality” Kasey Henricks, Loyola University Chicago Malcolm X would often tell his followers, “Racism is like a Cadillac, they bring out a new model every year.” Although newer models look much different than older ones, the fact of the matter is a Cadillac is still a Cadillac. Likewise, racism is still racism, regardless of how it has changed throughout the years. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (2001) and Joe Feagin (2006), among others, have shown that racism is about how racial categories are central organizing principles of social circumstances and opportunities. Racial groups atop the hierarchy are enumerated numerous advantages, both symbolic and material, while other groups are disadvantaged. In the modern era, the racial rule persists in ways that are institutional, covert, and seemingly nonracial, but no less effective. I argue that the utilization of lotteries to finance public services, like education, exemplifies a new model of this racism. In a neo-liberal age characterized by deindustrialization and deregulation, the tax base that pays for many public services has been eroded, and despite much divestment from the welfare state, state governments nonetheless remain obligated to provide such services. Lotteries have become a viable alternative for governments to generate hundreds of millions, if not billions of dollars. Politicians are generally receptive to them, particularly when confronted with budgetary shortfalls, because they raise huge tax revenues with little resistance from the public. Lotteries rely upon voluntary participation, but as Charles Clotfelter and Philip Cook (1989) argue, they still constitute a form of taxation because these revenues carry the same value regardless of how the state collects and spends them. Often times, however, lottery revenues are not generated equally across social groups. Some groups contribute more to public services than do others though the lottery tax. When these revenues are redistributed in a way that transfers money from one community to another, one community’s fiscal gain comes at another’s expense. So the question stands: Who plays and who pays? Recently, I completed a study that takes up this very question. Using Chicago as a case study, I simultaneously compared the generation and allocation of lottery revenues. My findings show that this money-exchange process is organized along lines of race (and class). The lottery is a racially regressive source of revenue (it collects much more money from blacks than whites), but the state spends these revenues on education without considering from whom they originated. When this occurs, resources are transferred from communities of color and spread across all communities. Figure 1. Education, Income, and Lottery Sales per Chicago ZCTA, by Racial Composition* Educationa Incomeb Lottery Salesc N Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. All white 39.0 22.6 76.939 19,876 3,614,749 1,259,408 5 Mostly white 46.9 28.9 78,164 25,105 8,360,010 3,442,437 7 Mostly black 19.5 12.1 49,593 11,040 11,923,979 4,707,545 9 All black 11.2 5.4 39,420 5,058 13,897,674 5,582,926 3 . After auditing financial records from the Illinois Department of Revenue, I found that lottery sales vary considerably by a community’s racial and class background. (See Figure 1 for an overview of this pattern.) Consider, for example, one illustrative comparison of a few communities of relatively equal population size. During the early 2000s, communities of color and working class communities such as Avalon Park, Calumet Heights, Roseland, and South Shore generated well over $20 million of lottery sales annually, whereas white communities and middle- to upper-class communities like North Center and Lakeview generated only $4 to $5 million. Such trends remained consistent after performing regression analysis, in which I was able to test for independent and simultaneous effects of race and class while controlling other influential variables. Figure 2. Expenditures of Lottery-Generated Revenues, FY2009 Source: “Illinois Lottery” 2010 Figure 3. Lottery Revenues Earmarked for IL Public Education, FY2004-2008 (in millions) Source: “Illinois Lottery” 2005, 2009 * Drawing from the work of Maria Krysan and Michael Bader (2009), I use census data to categorize zip code tabulation areas (ZCTAs) as racial communities if they meet a certain makeup. All white or black communities consist of 85 percent of more residents belonging to each respective group, while mostly white or black communities consist of at least 70 percent. a Population with a BS, BA, or Higher, per ZCTA (in percents). b Mean Household Income, per ZCTA (in dollars). c Average annual lottery revenues from Fiscal Years 1999 to 2002, per ZCTA (in dollars Once lottery sales are generated, nearly a third of every dollar is earmarked for public education in Illinois (see Figure 2). During the 2000s, the lottery’s contribution to state education amounted to nearly $600 million or more per year or roughly 10 percent of the state’s annual education budget (see Figure 3). It is placed in a general fund along with other sources of revenue and allotted to school districts based on three criteria: property tax levels, average daily attendance, and poverty levels within a district (see Figure 4). Illinois lawmakers intentionally designed the formula this way to ensure poorer districts receive more assistance than wealthier counterparts. Progressive intentions do not translate into progressive outcomes though, especially when lottery revenues are redistributed without considering from whom they originated. Figure 4. GSA Formula: How the Illinois State Board of Education Finances School Districts Source: “ISBE” 2011 In Chicago, money exchange between the lottery and education represents public policy that circulates money from those who need it most and spreads it around to everyone. This is especially true when lottery tax contributions outweigh other sources of money for education (e.g., property taxes). Under the worst circumstances communities of color are burdened with subsidizing public education, a service everyone is entitled. Public policy that circulates money in this way captures one mechanism for reproducing racially inequitable distributions of capital. Therefore, let us call this new Cadillac for what it is: Racism References Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2001. White Supremacy and Racism in the Post-Civil Rights Era. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner. Clotfelter, Charles T. and Phillip J. Cook. 1989. Selling Hope: State Lotteries in America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University. Feagin, Joe R. 2006. Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression. New York: Routledge. Illinois Lottery. 2010. A Charmed Life. Illinois Lottery Annual Report 2009. Retrieved June 11, 2011. (http://www.illinoislottery.com/subsections/PR/FY09AnRpt.pdf). ---. 2009. Dream By Numbers: Illinois Lottery Annual Report 2008. Retrieved September 5, 2009. (http://www.illinoislottery.com/subsections/PR/ FY08AnRpt.pdf). ---. 2005. Winning Big: Illinois Lottery Annual Report 2005. Retrieved June 3, 2010. (http://www.illinoislottery.com/subsections/PR/FY05AnRpt.pdf). Illinois State Board of Education. 2011. General State Aid – FY 2011 Overview. Retrieved May 14, 2011. (http://www.isbe.state.il.us/funding/pdf/ gsa_overview.pdf). Krysan, Maria and Michael D. M. Bader. 2009. “Racial Blind Spots: Black-White-Latino Differences in Community Knowledge.” Social Problems 56(4):677-701. “‘They All Look Alike’: Racial Perception, Popular Culture, and American Girl Dolls.” By Bhoomi K. Thakore and Rebecca West, Department of Sociology, Loyola University Chicago The concept of phenotype is less in vogue among scholars today. Racial difference has moved beyond a discussion of physical characterizations to a discussion of racial perceptions informing and influencing structural interactions (Omi and Winant 1995, Feagin 2000). It has also been found that minorities face challenges in mainstream social perceptions and interpersonal interactions (Bobo 1999, Gallagher 2003, Forman 2004, Gaertner and Dovido 2005). As American society has shifted from an overtly racist society to one that is more covert in their racial practices, the new colorblind rhetoric fails to address those racist tendencies that shape experiences for minorities in America (Aranda and Rebollo-Gil 2004, Bonilla-Silva 2009). An individual’s social classification is a dynamic process that depends more on the attitudes of the observer than the individual’s own self-identification or indeed, actual physical appearance (Peery and Bodenhausen 2008, MacLin and Malpass 2001). While the initial determinate of identification and categorization of people of color is still physical, these characteristics are seen through the lens of various cultural associations and the meanings attached to them. For example, both MacLin and Malpass (2001) and Levin and Berji (2006) found that the racial “label” attached to a human face changed the way a viewer perceived the person’s skin tone, suggesting that the cultural meanings attached to a particular racial category can have powerful influence on perceived phenotype. Working from this understanding, we set out to explore how the process of racial identification is affected by preexisting associations with phenotypical features such as eye color, hair color and texture, face shape, and skin tone. Using 51 stock images of American Girl dolls (a popular brand of American toys), we asked respondents to identify the racial and/or ethnic group to which the doll belongs. Our sample includes 475 respondents, approximately half who are familiar with the dolls (“collectors”) and half who are unfamiliar (“non-collectors”). Cross-comparison between these groups informed our understanding of the extent of the company’s marketing influence on racial categorizations. In our research, we seek to turn a more critical lens on the intersection of race and marketing/branding and focus on questions about perceptions and first impressions through race scholarship. 1. Dark vinyl, brown eyes, black textured hair, African-American face mold 2. Light vinyl, blue eyes, blonde fine hair, White face mold There were a few findings that held true for both respondent groups. First, dolls with dark vinyl “skin” as in Fig. 1 were overwhelmingly identified as Black, regardless of their other features. Similarly, dolls with light vinyl “skin” as in Fig. 2 were defined as White. These findings speak to the existing cultural understandings of race as a matter of skin tone features. Similarly, dolls with light vinyl “skin” as in Fig. 2 were defined as White. These findings speak to the existing cultural understandings of race as a matter of skin tone. 3. Dark vinyl, brown eyes, black textured hair, African-American face mold 4. Dark vinyl, brown eyes, black fine hair, Asian Indian face mold However, in further examples, the issue of pigmentation became more nuanced. Collectors and non-collectors identified the dolls in Figs. 3 and 4 very differently. The majority of non-collectors identified both the dolls as Black (98% and 67% respectively), while the majority of collectors (68%) identified the doll in Fig. 4 as Asian Indian. The difference in interpretation is likely related to familiarity with the American Girl company’s marketing, which markets the doll in Fig. 3 as Black and the doll in Fig. 4 as Asian Indian. These two groups of respondents represent two cultural contexts in which racial signifiers are developed. In this instance, the American Girl company takes on the position of expert. For collectors, American Girl’s descriptions become key to their own racial understandings. As non-collectors are free from the direct influence of American Girl’s marketing, the meanings they make are influenced by their understanding of the American racial landscape. 5. Light vinyl, brown eyes, black fine hair, Asian face mold 6. Medium vinyl, hazel eyes, brown fine hair, Asian face mold Through further analysis, it is evident that the collectors’ conceptions of racial identity are not defined solely by their understanding of American Girl’s branding. Both dolls represented above are marketed by American Girl as multiracial – Fig. 5 is identified as Japanese and White, while Fig. 6 is identified as Japanese, White and Native Hawaiian. While collectors and non-collectors identified the doll in Fig. 5 as “Asian” in roughly equal numbers, the majority of neither group identified the dolls correctly based on her character. For the doll in Fig. 6, collectors were more likely than non-collectors to describe the doll as Native Hawaiian (40%), while non-collectors described the doll as White (48%). Again, the majority of neither group identified either of these dolls as multiracial. The tendency of respondents to identify the doll by her minority characteristics reflects the continuing ideology of hypo-descent and the “one-drop rule” in the United States (Root 1995, Omi 1999). Even when the doll’s identity is explicitly defined as minority and white, she is not categorized as white if her physical appearance indicates otherwise. This pattern not only reinforces the boundaries among racial groups, but also challenges the identification of those who are multiracial. Our data suggest two significant findings. First, physical characteristics, particularly skin tone, have a powerful influence in the process of racial identification. Second, pre-existing racist ideologies such as that of hypo-descent remain influential despite explicit statements challenging these positions. As Bonilla-Silva (2004) suggested, the racial identification and social placement of minorities in American society will depend on the ways in which the white majority chooses to define them. In other words, some minorities will be better off than others. From our study of American Girl dolls, it is evident that these definitions are based on skin tone and other physical characteristics. While skin tone remains a prominent feature for the categorization of race and ethnicity in American society, particularly in the distinction between Black and White, it is apparent that the combination of physical features is important for the identification of those racial groups in-between. Bonilla-Silva (2004) argued that the unique experiences of every minority will make it more difficult to study the experiences of a minority group as a whole. Indeed, the racial identification of those dolls that are non-white becomes much more nuanced depending on the combination of physical features. This suggests that in our growing multiracial and multicultural society, skin tone and phenotype will continue to be the most salient features of perceived “otherness.” Works Cited Aranda, Elizabeth and Guillermo Rebollo-Gil. 2004. “Ethnoracism and the ‘Sandwiched’ Minorities.” American Behavioral Scientist. 47(7): 910-27. Bobo, Lawrence. 1999. “Prejudice as Group Position: Microfoundations of a Sociological Approach to Racism and Race Relations.” Journal of Social Issues. 55: 445-472. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2004. “From Bi-Racial to Tri-Racial: Towards a New System of Racial Stratification in the USA.” Ethnic and Racial Studies. 27(6): 931-50. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2009. Racism without Racists: Color Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. 3rd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Feagin, Joe R. 2000. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparation. New York: Routledge. Forman, Tyrone A. 2004. “Color-Blind Racism and Racial Indifference: The Role of Racial Apathy in Facilitating Enduring Inequalities.” Pp. 43-66 in The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity. M. Krysan and A.E. Lewis, eds. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Gaertner, S.L. and J.F. Dovidio 2005. “Understanding and Addressing Contemporary Racism: From Aversive Racism to the Common Ingroup Identity Model.” Journal of Social Issues. 61(3): 615-39. Gallagher, Charles A. 2003. Playing the White Ethnic Card: Using Ethnic Identity to Deny Contemporary Racism. New York: Routledge. Levin, D.T., & Banaji, M.R. 2006. “Distortions in the Perceived Lightness of Faces: The Role of Race Categories.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 135: 501–512. MacLin, O.H., & Malpass, R.S. 2001. “Racial Categorization of Faces: The Ambiguous Race Face Effect.” Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7: 98–118. Omi, Michael. 1999. “Racial Identity and the State: Contesting the Federal Standards for Classification.” Pp. 25-33 I n Race, Ethnicity and Nationality in the United States. P. Wong, ed. New York: Westview Press. Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. 1995. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. Peery, Destiny and Galen Bodenhausen. 2008. “Black + White = Black: Hypodescent in Reflexive Categorization of Racially Ambiguous Faces” Psychological Science. 19: 973-977. Root, Maria P.P. 1995. “The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as a Significant Frontier in Race Relations.” Pp. xii-xxvii in The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier. New York: Sage. Root, Maria P.P. 1995. “The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as a Significant Frontier in Race Relations.” Pp. xii-xxvii in The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier. New York: Sage.